Positron Annihilation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Positron Annihilation - Essay Example The gamma rays released can be detected and measured. A source of positrons and a detector for gamma radiation is required to study positron annihilation. The positron annihilation experiment involves the use of two detectors placed at an angle anywhere between 160-200Â °. 22Na and 60Co are used in the experiment. The scintillation detectors are used not only for the detection but also measurement of gamma radiation. Electronic counters are used for investigating the annihilation events. The observations made regarding the annihilation events in case of 22Na were found to be in agreement with theoretical considerations. The angular distribution of gamma rays from a 60Co source was also investigated. This part of the experiment provided rather convoluted information. The gamma rays resulting from annihilation events were found to be more spread rather than peaked. Such a behavior can be attributed to the changes in the angular momentum of the 60Co nucleus as it progresses through its unstable, excited state. Observations made in this experiment are in agreement with theoretical observations. The experiment demonstrates back-to-back emission of annihilation photons, peaking at 180Â °. The coincidence events for 22Na were found to be more reliable than for 60Co. Introduction. Collision of a low energy positron by an electron of low energy results in their annihilation, causing the production of gamma ray photons. They are responsible for carrying away the momentum and energy of the pair. e? + e+ > ? + ? These photon rays do not have enough mass and energy to result in the production of heavier particles. The process of positron annihilation satisfies certain laws of conservation such as the conservation of electric charge, conservation of total energy, and conservation of momentum (both linear and angular). The conservation of linear momentum and energy does not accommodate the creation of one photon but rather two gamma rays. The two gamma rays ensuing from the positron annihilation move in the opposite direction. The energy possessed by these two gamma rays is approximately 0.511 MeV (Mega electron Volts). Figure 1: Feynman diagram of positron annihilation (Booklet, 2012) The two gamma rays are created because there is no momentum in the system during annihilation as both the electron and the positron come to rest for a short moment. The momentum of the system cannot be conserved if only one proton is created in the process. The collective amount of 1.022 MeV energy of the two gamma rays that are moving in opposite directions satisfies the conservation of the momentum and energy. The positron used in the annihilation process is often obtained from the decay of a proton into a neutron, resulting in the release of a positron and a neutrino. Figure 2: Emission of positron and its annihilation (PET, 2007) The gamma rays released in the process of positron annihilation are both detectable and measurable. Time coincidence counting is a technique that is employed for studying radioactive materials. With this technique, radioactive materials can be detected and identified. The disintegration rates of the radioactive materials can also be calibrated with this technique. The absolute activity of the materials can be measured by counting th e radiation events occurring in the radioactive material. The radiation could comprise of beta and gamma rays and can be easily measured using the technique. During the decay of an unstable nucleus, several photons may be emitted in a cascade. 60Co nucleus is one such example. In 22Na, the decay product, which is a positron, annihilates in the source itself. To induce positron annihilation or study it, there is a need for a positron emitter. Various materials have been used

Accounting Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Accounting Case Study - Essay Example There is a belief that poor branding identity is the root cause of declining market fortunes. In addition, its recent methods of retailing have been overcome by recent market shifts. Looking at the giant entrants as if the Wal-Mart and Canadian Tire depicts a total shift in retailing strategies. Perhaps the failure of the manufacturer to respond to market trends has largely caused the problem that is being currently mitigated. More importantly, the larger manufacturers have adopted the use of modern information technology and sophisticated inventory management systems. It is certain that deliberate steps need to be undertaken immediately. Apart from a shift of the marketing trends towards information technology, the company has failed to build a strong brand as the marketing forces become fierce. Today, the category suppliers have grown significantly that they command specific designs for manufacturers to produce. Evidently, the recent times has seen category supply, demand particular sizes and colors of goods being supplied. While Clearwater remains stagnant in the traditional retail systems, the market forces have overwhelmingly become unbearable. Besides, the problem has arisen because of untimely management decisions. In business, the management team should be vibrant and creative. Acting timely to respond to changing market patterns is critical in ensuring that a company is not forced out of the market. With a timely and a continuous product adjustment, the company would not be experiencing the current marketing doldrums. In addition, it is certain that the problem is solely a marketing and strategic step. One of the problem would have been solved before it became evident was branding, as a business grows that need to maintain a highly competitive manageable is crucial, management decisions should explore product and study market patterns with a view of making necessary

Impact of Teleworking on Innovation

Impact of Teleworking on Innovation This study seeks to explore the relationship between high-tech firms, innovation, and the teleworking trend. Specifically, an examination of the high-technology sector in the UK is provided, followed by explanations of teleworking, innovation, and high-tech firms as they relate to the scope and focus of this study.   The above is based on published findings of empirical research and published reports.   This study then considers how teleworking has impacted innovation at the Intel Corporation, a leading manufacturer of semiconductors who allows employees in certain positions to telework part or all of their workweek.   Innovation and impact are considered at an overall corporate level, rather than at an individual level. Findings of this research indicate that teleworking one to two dayseach week has no discernibly negative impact on innovation, and mayactually enhance innovation, provided systems to encourage andfacilitate innovation are in place.   Implications for organisationsentering the teleworking arena and the sector as a whole are followed by recommendations for high-tech companies and for future research. Teleworking is a cultural trend in much of Europe and the Americas.   While it provides many plusses and a few minuses to theindividual teleworkers, its impact on organisations and particularlyinnovation at those organisations has not been sufficiently explored.  This study seeks to consider the impact teleworking has onorganisations, specifically high-technology organisations, and theirability to generate, initiate, and implement innovative products,processes and administrative ideas. A review of previously published findings related to teleworking,innovation, and high-technology is provided, covering these topics ingeneral.   The focus of the study then narrows, addressing organisationsthat both use and produce high-tech products or services, and finallyconcentrating on innovation in the computer hardware and softwaresector.   Ideas and conclusions from these studies are then combinedwith information from Intel Corporation, a leading manufacturer ofsemi-conductors and similar computer products, to analyse the specificimpact of teleworking at Intel.   It is hoped the conclusions drawn from Intel’s experiences will beuseful to other high-tech firms practicing or considering teleworking,as well as encourage others to pursue related research. High-technology has evolved in the past thirty years from something outof a science fiction novel to part of the average Britain’s everydaylife.   The UK contributes over 5% of the world’s research anddevelopment, although it has less than one percent of the world’spopulation.  Ã‚   The UK additionally has the larges software and computerservices sector in the EU, and a significant semiconductor industry(Anon 2005).   From Bristol, at the end of the M4 hi-tech corridor, toSheffield, where software has replaced steel, to the hi-tech centres inCambridge and Hertfordshire, high-tech is replacing and revitalisingthe declining UK industrial sector. It is important to note that the high-tech sector differs in severaldistinct ways from other sectors of the economy.   First, the speed atwhich technology changes is simply unmatched in other productionsectors.   This requires not only constant innovation in product, butconstant innovation in the process and administrative arenas as well(Edquist 2003).   Property rights considerations have starkly differentapplications in high-tech organisations.   If companies wait until theirnew ideas were licensed or patented before progressing into production,the market will likely pass by them and their product before it evenmoves into sale (Cohan 1997).   High-tech organisations are also morelikely to share information and partner on products, particularly intheir non-core technologies, and share the profits with another firmrather than miss a market entirely (Edquist 2003). The local high-technology sector differs in some ways from that inother countries.   The UK has historically lagged behind the UnitedStates and Japan in its ability to move a product from idea toproduction in the high-tech arena.   UK firms, unless part of aninternational company who mandates certain practices, have not made asmuch effort to design intra-organisational systems to encourageinnovation (Surrey 2004).   In a study by the University of Surrey,Ellie Runcie stated that after studying UK and U.S. high-tech firms,she found UK organisations have â€Å"often no discussion at all is made ofthe role of user research in innovation† (Surrey 2004).   This is aconcern regarding the UK high-tech sector that needs to be considered. The UK also has a lower per-capital computer literacy and computer use,particularly in the home sector, than most other high-tech nations.   Ona more positive note, the UK government has launched a campaign toincrease computer literacy and home computer use.   Intel, BT, andMicrosoft are the three major organisations working with the OeE, DTIand DfES on this campaign (Intel 2004). One of these leaders from the high-technology sector, the IntelCorporation, will be considered in greater detail.   Although aU.S.-headquartered firm, Intel has facilities in several places in theUK, as well as worldwide.   Intel is a major manufacturer ofsemi-conductors and computer processors, and will be used as an examplein this research of how teleworking can contribute to innovation in thehigh-tech environment. As this study considers the topics of teleworking, innovation, andhigh-technology, it was felt necessary to define and set parameters foreach.   The following literature is considered in the scope of thisresearch, with specific delineations of the three main study componentsoutlined in detail.   We have recently entered an important new phase in the ongoinginformation technology revolution. It is difficult to pick up abusiness magazine or newspaper today without reading about anorganisation offering teleworking and virtual offices for remoteworkers. There has been fair media coverage in how companies haveembraced the idea of teleworking, including the likes of ATT,Ernst and Young and IBM.   A monthly magazine is even devoted toâ€Å"today’s flexible workplace,† Telecommute, published by the nationaltrade organisation, the International Telecommuting Advisory Council(ITAC). Part of a general trend towards remote work, teleworking is a naturalresult of the information revolution, fuelled by the growth ofknowledge work and the rapid advance in technology.   The trend isconsistent with predictions made by futurist Alvin Toffler in his 1980book The Third Wave, that the location of work would outgrow typicalsites such as offices or factories, and begin to take place in alllocations. Teleworking is especially becoming popular in high-technologyorganisations.   During my work placement at Intel Corporation, I wasalso exposed to various team members teleworking from home one to twodays per week. While this trend is popular with employees, it behovestoday’s high-technology company to consider the impact of teleworkingon innovation.   This sector of the business environment is particularlydependent on innovation to remain viable, and it is important,therefore, that the initiation and implementation of innovation not besacrificed to worker preference. Examination of various sources reveals a lack of consensus as to thedefinition of teleworking, or as it is sometimes called,telecommuting.   ‘Teleworking’ is more common in European literature,while ‘telecommuting’ is more common in but not limited to Americanliterature.   Unfortunately, this lack of a universally accepteddefinition of teleworking causes problems academically; as either termcan be used to mean ‘home-working’, ‘working-at-a-distance’, ‘off-siteworkers’, or ‘remote-workers,’ it hinders the ability to comparefindings from different sources. Therefore, it is necessary to chooseand define a single term before proceeding. The term ‘telework’ is generally preferred on this side of theAtlantic, and will be used here.   Huws, Korte, and Robinson (1990)define telework as work â€Å"which is independent of the location of theemployer or contractor and can be changed according to the wishes ofthe individual teleworkers and/or the organisation for which he or sheis working† (10).   Olson (1988) argues, â€Å"the term telework is used torefer to organisational work performed outside of the normalorganisational confines of space and time, augmented by computer andcommunications technology. The work is not necessarily performed in thehome (77).   The EU holds that ‘telework’ â€Å"covers a range of new ways ofworking, using the telecommunications as a tool and, for at least partof the time, outside a traditional office environment (EuropeanCommission, 1996, 11).   Jack Nilles defined telecommuting as â€Å"an arrangement that entailsworking outside the conventional w orkplace and communication by way oftelecommunications or computer-based technology (Bailey and Kurkland,2000).   According to The American Telecommuting Association, 2002,telecommuting is â€Å" replacing or supplementing physical travel to theoffice by using modern telecommunications equipment to bring officeresources to the employee. While computers serve to augmenttelecommuting, it is possible to telecommute with only paper, penciland telephone.† Distilling the above into a workable definition, important elements of telework for the purpose of this study include: à ¢Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚ «Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   the person doing the telework is an employee of the organisation for which she or he works à ¢Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚ «Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   computers and communication technology are used à ¢Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚ «Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   it is not necessarily performed in the home, but does occur outside a traditional office environment Telework is therefore defined as any substantial part of an employee’swork performed by employees that is physically separated from thelocation of their employer using information technology (IT) foroperation and communication.  Ã‚   Three groups are affected by teleworking:   the employers ororganisations, the individual teleworkers, and society as a whole.  Benefits and drawbacks to individual teleworkers vary greatly fromperson to person, and are difficult to evaluate.   Benefits to societyare primarily environmental, as reduced commuting decreases pollutionand reduces transportation-related injury.   This study will thereforefocus on the affect of teleworking on the employer or organisation.  Areas of benefit include increased productivity and financialadvantages.   Drawbacks security concerns, management issues, andreduction in interaction and exchanged of ideas.   Each of thesebenefits and drawbacks will have impact on innovation inhigh-technology environments. INCREASED PRODUCTIVITY According to The American Telecommuting Association, various surveyshave documented teleworking employees’ productivity gains of up to 60%(1992).   They claim that extra productivity is consistently clocked at10-15% in nearly every study in the past two decades.   The SocialMarket Foundation (2004) argues that teleworking can increaseproductivity by up to 30%. They further claim that the more than twomillion UK workers now regularly telecommute with employees use thetime saved from commuting and meetings for extra work.   Huws (1992),Salmon and Shamir (1985), Caudron (1992), and Metzger and Von Glinow(1998) all report indications of improved productivity, reliability andwork quality among teleworkers. The increase in employee productivity resulted from teleworking isalso supported by G. E. Gordon, who claims there are a variety ofreasons for increased productivity in employees who telework.   Theseinclude decreased time spent commuting to work, fewer distractions inthe workplace, and giving telecommuters the opportunity to better matchtheir work times with their peak productive periods.   He notes thatproductivity gains ranging from 15-30% are common with such programs(Gordon 1986). Employee motivation is another cited reason for improved productivity.  Employees perceive being the ability to telework as an indication thattheir employers have sufficient trust and faith in them to workindependently.   It could also be argued that teleworkers in fact workharder than non-teleworking employees as they feel the need to prove totheir office peers that they are not indolent as a result of working athome without supervision. Teleworkers may also feel the need to workharder to achieve promotions (). However, various theorists argue that some employees find that becausethey have their work resources at home, they tend to work more. Thiscould interfere with family life.   In addition, telework can be viewedas an intrusion of the workplace in the home. The office at home is aconstant reminder of work.   There is the real problem of definingconcrete working hours when the distraction of home life is a constantpresence.   Working hours and social versus home time can becomeblurred.   Another form of intrusion is when family members or socialinterruptions constantly disrupt teleworkers from completing work.  This may add extra pressures and stress.   Teleworking employees whoexperience such disruption and time management issues may actually havedecreased motivation and productivity due to these outside factors.  Therefore, it is important that employees exercising their option totelework draw strong boundaries that will enable them to workeffectively.   Guidance from t he organisation and possiblity sometraining in effective teleworking should be included by an organisationemploying teleworkers. Smith (1997) suggests telecommuting reduces absenteeism amongstemployees.   For example, employees who may feel too ill to complete afull day and commute, may be well enough to work a partial day.  Individuals are more likely to continue working even when feelingunwell due to being in a more comfortable and relaxed work environment,i.e. their home.   Smith counters that teleworkers often havedifficulty, especially at first, with separating home and work time.  This increases if children are in the teleworking location, most likelythe home.   However, adjustments are usually successful in the long term. Further, the Bureau of Labour Statistics reports that businessproductivity, the measure or output per work hour, has risen 2.8% since1998.   This correlates positively and directly with an increase inteleworking. Teleworking has been perhaps, therefore, most effective inincreasing productivity. Clearly, these human resource managers are very satisfied with theirprograms a nd believe their telecommuters are satisfied as well.   Ifhalf of the firms included in the above research are reporting morework done at a better quality in comparison to the traditional workforce, there must be considerable merit to teleworking increasingproductivity. FINANCIAL SAVINGS Teleworking can also save firms money in a number of ways.   It providesthe employer with an expanded pool of potential employees. The skillsof employees with commuting difficulties, childcare conflict,disabilities and geographical barriers employees are all made availableto the employer who adopts the telecommuting practice.   Smith (1997)supports this, claiming teleworking offers attractive workingconditions, which aid in the recruitment and retention of skilledemployees and help to reduce voluntary separation of key employees.  This represents considerable savings to the employer in terms ofreduced hiring and training costs. Reduced overhead is another financial benefit.   Teleworking reducestime and travel costs for meetings, conferences and training thusminimising organisational overheads.   Individual teleworkers alsobenefit from reduced costs in transportation, clothing, childcare, andreduced absenteeism.   Teleworking can also help firms remain in the same location and avoidfuture relocation to larger premises.   This particular cost saving ishighly remunerative due to the increasing real estate prices in urbanareas today and the substantial cost savings in office space.   Peoplewho telework do not use office space and do not create overheads.   Evenin case of part-time teleworking space savings are generated.   This isevident at IBM, who is expected to save between 15 to 20 percent inspace requirements by taking away the desks of more than five thousandof its employees and telling them to work at home, in their car, or attheir clients’ offices (Swinton 2002). The claim that teleworking reduces organisational overheads is alsosupported by BT who introduced its â€Å"Workstyle 2000 flexible working†programme ten years ago.   The claim that the programme has saved them134m as a result of teleworking practices.   This includes reducing thenumber of employee desks in London from 10,000 to 3,000, saving  £6,000per desk per year.   There has also been a five% reduction in companycar mileage, resulting in fuel savings of  £9.7m this year alone.   BTalso reports a 20% increase in productivity and that 75% of alltelephone conferences are replacements of face-to-face meetings. Opponents of teleworking argue there are often some initial increasedcosts due to outfitting the teleworkers and making adjustments tocompany computers to accommodate them.   Ford (1995) claims thattelecommuting programs lead to extra costs. He claims that extra coststypically involve additional equipment requirements and funding theprovision of human reso urce services, training, fringe benefits, andrelocating. He continued to argue that the question of cost alsoincludes the equipment and space costs associated with telecommutingprogram and that telephones and electronic equipment cost more fortelecommuters than for traditional workers. It is important that hardware and software provided to teleworkersstarts out and remains uniform because this simplifies supportimmensely.   The required initial investment and length of time forpayback will vary sharply from company to company, however, with themost technologically advanced incurring the least upfront costs.   Giventhat high-tech firms are those under consideration in this study andthey have the most access to the latest and most efficient technology,it then follows that these expenditures do not detract from the savingsfor high-tech firms adopting or practicing teleworking. Additionally, many companies report current pressures on their supportdesk and according to Classe (2000) this will intensify by theintroduction of a remote workforce.   As teleworkers usually worknon-standards hours, longer hours of support cover may be required,which will confer additional associated costs to the employer.   Thecost factor for such support spread across a larger high-t ech companywill have little impact; the same costs spread across a smaller companymay be significant and should be considered a potential drain onresources that could support innovation implementation. SECURITY Security is a major concern for high-tech companies with teleworkingemployees.   Confidential information must be accessible to theteleworkers remotely, information that may range from a product indevelopment to a change in production methods to sensitive profiles offuture customer bases.   This makes the same information more accessibleto hackers and competitors; it is highly unlikely a company couldafford or an employee would want equal security measures on theirprofessional facilities and residences.   In addition, information used and generated by teleworkers willtypically be uploaded to a server for accessibility.   Others within thecompany then have increased chance of access, compromisingintra-company security. Eric von Hippel, however, in his study of knowledge location andinnovation solving, noted â€Å"conducting innovation-related problemsolving at remote sites need not compromise an innovator’s ability toprotect commercially important secrets† (1994).   While greaterpotential for security breaches exist, this in no way indicatessecurity need be compromised by teleworkers. MANAGEMENT One of the biggest problems for managers and staff involved withtelework is measuring and monitoring the work done by employees.Management recognise that it is easier to monitor the level of workdone by employees when they are in the office and managers often worrythat their staff will not work as hard from home.   Teleworking presentspotential issues with the ability to discipline telecommutingemployees, provide a career path, and provide promotionalopportunities.   Those in supervisory positions often see difficultiesin relation to mangers’ human resource management responsibilities(Werdigier and Neibuhr 2002). Ford (1995) also raisies the issue of the telecommutting impact on thesupervisors span of control.   Due to the workers being so spread out,Ford claims that many companies will be forced to reduce the averagespan of supervisory and will not have sufficent control to accommodatethe unique problems of telecommuters.   Ford suggests that another majoraspect of th e supervisory issue is the ability of the manager tocontrol distractions in the work setting and to ensure that theemployee does not become displaced from the informal help and adviceavailable through interaction with a work group. Clearly, managers of such programs need to be trained in remotesupervision.   In addition, they should recognise the possibility thattheir teleworking employees may not have adequate access to training,career and promotional opportunities.   More importantly, theseemployees may miss the informal information sharing that occurs in atraditional work environment.   This will be shown to have a significantimpact on innovation.    REDUCED SOCIAL INTERACTION AND POLITICAL INFLUENCE Social isolation seems to be mostly acknowledged by scholars as themost significant potential or actual drawback of teleworking.  Ã‚   Whilesome employees welcome the new freedom that comes with lesssupervision, others say they miss the camaraderie and socialinteraction that comes with face-to-face office operations.   However,this usually depends on the professional level of the employee.   Smith(1997) argues that the higher the level, then the more electroniccontacts and networks; hence, less social isolation is experienced. Video conferencing could help ease the psychological trauma that comeswith social isolation, allowing multiple numbers of people to converseand perform work together in an electronic version of face-to-facecommunication.   This may allow teleworkers to increase the humanemotion and communicational flexibility often lacking in electroniccommunication.   Social isolation also implies that for teleworkersthere is minimal peer availability for informal work relateddiscussions as one might get, for example, in a staff cafeteria atlunch times. In addition, teleworkers may lack the political connections and cloutto get innovations approved or funded.   With reduced opportunities tobuild relationships on the job, they are forced to propose or supportinnovation solely on the merits of the proposal (Werdigier and Neibuhr2002).   While this theoretically could be a positive result ofteleworking, in practice it reduces the chance of innovative input fromteleworkers being initiated or implemented. DECREASED KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE It could similarly be argued that the largest detraction of teleworkingon innovation in high-technology organisations is the reduction ofknowledge exchange from employee interaction.   Informal and proximitylearning is an ongoing opportunity for training in the traditionaloffice environment not available to teleworkers.   If both are in thesame location, an inexperienced worker can observe another moreexperienced worker and learn from this observation.   This is asignificant training tool for office-based or facility-based workersand one of the main ways knowledge is acquired and exchanged in anorganisation (Classe 2000). CASE STUDY BT The various benefits of telecommuting to the employer can be supportedby the findings of a study conducted amongst 2000 BT employees (2002).  The study revealed that enabling staff to work from home resulted inincreased company productivity and better employee health and qualityof life.   BT claimed that telecommuting saved them  £35m a year inaccommodation, recruitment costs and absenteeism and that teleworkerswere four times less likely to take sick days, averaging three days offa year compared with twelve for office-based staff. The study also revealed that almost 80% of teleworkers claimed to bemore productive thanks to reduced disruption, commuting time andstress, and greater flexibility about when and where to work.  According to Alison Garner, marketing manager for social responsibilityat BT making staff feel part of the BT community was key to theschemes success. Although a small number of teleworkers complain about increased workinghours, four out of five survey respondents claimed that teleworking isimportant or very important for their quality of life.   Almostthree-quarters described their work/life balance as good or verygood.   BT also maintained that its teleworking policies paid off interms of staff recruitment and retention. CASE STUDY – THE SUSTEL PROJECT The Sustel Project, created in 2002 by the EUs Information SocietyTechnologies programme, found that telework increases businessresilience since it allows work to be done when building operations aredisrupted by factors such as the weather. The Project also showed that the influence of telework on human capitaldevelopment, the personal competencies and skills needed to createwealth, was mostly positive.   Seven of the studies found that teleworkhad a significantly positive effect on internal communication andknowledge sharing, often due to the conscious implementation oftechnological tools during telework program deployment.   At theindividual level, the main financial benefit of telework was reducedcommuting costs, which almost all respondents saw as being greater thanthe increased cost of energy in their home. BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS – CONCLUSION At the present time there is a lot of controversy in both academic andpractitioner literatures with respect to how telecommuting affectsorganisation employees.   At one extreme, telecommuting is considered aflexible work arrangement that will solve a multitude of problems.   Atthe other extreme, authors have implicated telecommuting causing anumber of negative consequences including loneliness, isolation,exploitation and increased stress.   While there are a legitimate numberof potentially negative effects of telework, these effects can beminimized by proper program management. A balanced view is presented from Baruch and Nicholson (1997) andGoodrich (1990) who claim that the best output from telecommuting isachieved if it is conducted on a part-time basis. They argue,teleworking on a part-time basis can prevent or significantly reducethe social isolation of teleworkers. There are a number of benefits and drawbacks that should be consideredspecifically by high-tech organisations implementing teleworkprogrammes.   From a broad organisational perspective, the positives ofsuch a programme seem to outweigh the negatives.   However, the twodrawbacks of teleworking with legitimate effect on innovation in thehigh-technology sector are reduced political influence, and knowledgeavailability and exchange.   As these have been identified as ofgreatest impact, these areas will be focused on in this study.   As with teleworking, there are a number of different proposeddefinitions of innovation.   One of the most complete is offered byDamanpour (1996), who defines innovation as â€Å"the adoption of an idea orbehaviour new to the adopting organisation,† which usually occurs as â€Å"aresponse to changes in the external environment or as a pre-emptiveaction to influence the environment† (694).   Innovation is â€Å"departingfrom existing norms and practices,† and â€Å"requires risk taking†(Damanpour 1996, 698).   Edquist (2003) defines innovation as â€Å"newcreations of economic significance, primarily carried out by firms†(2).   Depending on the researcher, innovation is held to require either twoor four steps to implementation.   In the four-step model, theinnovative idea is first discovered or created.   This usually happenswith one individual or a small number of individuals working as ateam.   The idea is then presented to and accept ed by a decision-makingleader or body.   Initial adoption of the innovative idea by theorganisation is the next step, with the company allocating someresources to the development of the idea, such as pilots or testcases.   Implementation occurs when the innovative idea reaches broadacceptance within the organisation and becomes part of its regularproduct, process, or routine (Styles and Goddard 2004).   The two-stepcombines the first three steps of the four-step model under oneheading, initiation (Damanpour 1996). There are three types of innovation:   product innovation, processinnovation and administrative innovation (Edquist 2003).   Allcompanies, and small firms in particular, are more likely to innovatein the product arena, where results are tangible and measurable.  Larger firms will also innovate in process areas.   However, processinnovation is more difficult to implement than product, as it requireschange across multiple systems.   Administration innovation occurs mostfrequently in large, structurally complex companies, as it requires themost widespread changes to the organisation (Damanpour 1996).  Ã‚   Innovation within these three areas can be radical or incremental.  Radical innovation â€Å"produces fundamental changes in the activities ofthe organisation and represent a large departure from existingpractices† (Damanpour 1996, 699).   Radial innovation requires a largerknowledge base and free resources.   Incremental innovation is adoptedmore slowly, and produces less pronounced changes to organisationalsystems and activities. Innovation, therefore, is defined in this study as a change in theproduct, process or administration of an organisation; a new idea thatdeparts from existing norms and practices to respond to the firm’scurrent or future environment.   Innovation implementation requires knowledge, creativity, politicalsupport (within the organisation), and adequate resources.   Increasingany of the above or making the systems that control them moreeffective, therefore, has a positive effect on innovation.   Asinnovation requires both change and risk, companies will only undertakeinnovation if it is perceived as necessary to their survival or can beshown to have financial incentives.   Recognizing the forces driving the organisation to innovate isimportant.   For example, environmental uncertainty and environmentalcomplexity both contribute to increased innovation.   Uncertainty aboutthe future leads directly to a concerted effort to increase knowledgebase and exchange.   This influx of information then leads to increasedinnovation (Damanpour 1996).   This is especially evident inhigh-technology firms, where a market leader product today may becompletely obsolete by next year.   Definite, articulated identificationof the need for and support of innovation within the organisationgreatly enhances the chance of implementation of an innovative idea. Similarly, development or adjusting organisational systems to encourageand support innovation increases the chance of innovative success.  Damanpour found that â€Å"large organisations can facilitate theimplementation of innovations by adopting more flexible structures andorganising themselves into smaller units† (1996, 700).   Creation ofinnovative ideas is more likely in complex organizations, where thereis a larger knowledge base and an increase in knowledge exchange(Damanpour 1996).  Ã‚   However, larger organisations are less likely tomove innovative ideas to implementation as they are typically moreformalized, with lower managerial incentive to innovation (Hitt,Hoskisson and Ireland 1990).   An example of this is IBM, which made a sy

Oliver Twist - Summary :: essays research papers

During the summer of 1999, I have chosen to read the book, Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens. Reading this book will better prepare me for my upcoming course of global studies because it deals with many of the regions and time periods we will be studying in class. Although this book was a classic that I thought I had known so much about, reading it and paying attention to the setting and surroundings of the young boy’s life, I noticed many historical events and customs from his time period. The following is a report including the answers to the questions provided for my summer reading program. The story begins with a woman giving birth to a baby without the proper instruments necessary and dies. The boy is brought up in a dirty home with little to eat and under poor conditions. No one knows of the boy’s identity. His government caretakers give him the name Oliver. Oliver grows up in a world with no sympathy for poor orphans. He goes to London to escape his mean guardians and to try to make a better life for himself. On his journey he is mixed up with thieves and is caught stealing even though it was the people he was with. He gets sick and is taken care of by the people who he originally stole from and they grow to love him. The thieves find out about him staying with the people and kidnap him. More stealing takes place and Oliver is trained to be a better thief. One time, during a robbery, Oliver is shot and left for dead by the thieves. The people at the house Oliver was to rob took him in and gave him a home. Oliver’s identity is found. It turns out that O liver was supposed to receive an inheritance from his father and one of the people who got him caught knew this. After confessing, Oliver received his inheritance and lived a happy life from then on. After reading this book and studying the surroundings of the main characters as well as the other characters, I am lead to believe that this book takes place in two different sections of England in the late seventeen hundreds to the early eighteen hundreds. Most of the story takes place in warehouses and in broken down buildings or other hideouts. Other scenes take place in the home of wealthy people in London.

Ap Global Midterm Review

Global Midterm review * Changes to map of Europe after WWI/WWII- new countries formed After WWI Only two completely new countries in Europe were formed after WW1 – Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. Poland, which had been wiped off the map in 1795, was revived. The Baltic republics – Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania asserted their independence. Romania doubled in size. After WWII To a great extent, no new countries were formed after World War II. Most of these changes occurred in the East.Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, only just winning independence after WWI were erased as independent states and became part of the Soviet Union. Poland's borders were moved eastward to include only the â€Å"corridor† from before the war but also parts of East Prussia, Pomerania, and Silesia, though they also lost the eastern parts of their country to the Soviet Union. Austria and Czechoslovakia, states created by the end of WWI but annexed to Nazi Germany in the 1930s reappeared, thoug h Czechoslovakia was firmly under Soviet domination and the Austrians were forced to remain neutral during the growing Cold War.In Europe the only country divided was Germany. * Conservatism in western politics Conservatives, such as Austria’s Prince Klemens von Metternich, were bent on maintaining the sanctity of traditional political institutions, particularly the monarchy. It was also their goal to maintain a balance of power in Europe in order to ensure a permanent peace. * Welfare state Welfare State and Consumer Society A. The motives for the welfare state 1. protection against depression and political extremism 2. the argument for social justice B.Features of the welfare state 1. support ‘from cradle to grave’ 2. educational and cultural opportunities C. The growth of consumer society 1. a new standard of living 2. materialism and hedonism 3. the end of public life? * Nuclear umbrella Nuclear umbrella refers to a guarantee by a nuclear weapons state to def end a non-nuclear allied state. * Germany after World War II At the end of the war, Germany was basically divided into 4 sections, each one under the control of one of the Allied powers; The United States, England, France, and Russia.Berlin was divided as well. After a period of rebuilding and reorganization, the sections under the control of the United States, England, and France were returned to the control of the German government. Russia retained control over its section and brought it under the fold of the newly formed USSR. This resulted in the Berlin Wall, and the separate countries of East Germany and West Germany. Following the fall of communism and the breakup of the USSR in the 1980's, Germany reunified. * Marshall plan Proposed to rebuild the continent in the interest of political stability and a healthy world economy * viewed as a vehicle for American economic dominance * Iron Curtain * a term coined by Winston Churchill to describe the boundary that separated the Warsa w Pact countries from the NATO countries from about 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991 * was both a physical and an ideological division that represented the way Europe was viewed after World War II * Soviet control over Eastern Europe Between 1945 and 1949 Stalin created a Russian empire in Eastern Europe.This empire included Poland, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and East Germany. Each had a Communist government. In the West they were called satellites because they clung closely to the Soviet Union like satellites round a planet. Stalin was able to create this empire for a number of reasons. The first was the military might of the Soviet Union in Europe after 1945. Another reason for the spread of Communism after the war was the gratitude of many Eastern Europeans for their liberation from Nazism.This, and the often-appalling conditions at the end of the war, played into the hands of east European communist parties, which were, of course, backed by Stalin and t he Soviet Union. * Decolonization after World War II After WWII Europe tried to reassert its colonial dominance over Africa and the Far East. At the same time national movements grew strong in those colonies. Europe soon realized that they would be unable to physically control the colonies without massive military occupation forces.This was impossible both in economic and political terms. As a result the colonial powers began a staged withdrawal of physical control but maintained economic ties. While these new countries were ‘independent' their formal colonial masters still had much control over the country. * Impact of World War II on international trade The conclusion of World War II spurred efforts to correct the problems stemming from protectionism, which had increased since 1871, and trade restrictions, which had been imposed between World Wars I and II.The resulting multilateral trade agreements and other forms of international economic cooperation led to the General Agr eement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and laid the foundation for the World Trade Organization (WTO). * Impact of World War II on civilian population -One of the most distressing impacts that war has on civilians is the frequent removal of their basic human rights -Huge civilian casualties on front line and bombing attacks -gave people the physiological hope to become as powerful as Hitler did * Consequences of industrialization in the 1800s Mass migration of people from the land to the cities. -Massive building of below standard accommodation, built cheaply, to accommodate them -Massive increase in childhood mortality due to injuries at work, cruelty, the spread of disease, rat population increase, alcohol use and casual neglect of children due to both parents working. -Expansion of the coal industry to include women and children working down the mines. -Exploitation of cheap child labor -Poor diet due to low wages and the collapse of the agricultural economy due to lack of laborers - Slavery in the UK to plug the gaps of missing workers War with France had been ongoing from the late 18th century and was a massive drain on the economy. -The start of the National Debt to pay for the war and the introduction of taxes on booze, tobacco etc. -Explosion in smuggling to counteract the tax increases. * NATO/Warsaw Pact NATO- North Atlantic Trade Organization -led by US; maintain adequate military strength and political unity to deter aggression and other forms of military or political pressure; aimed at a relaxation of tensions between East and West – a policy based to a large extent on general military strength.Warsaw Pact -led by USSR; a military treaty, which bound its signatories to come to the aid of the others, should any one of them be the victim of foreign aggression. * Congress of Vienna The Congress of Vienna was convened in 1815 by the four European powers, which had defeated Napoleon. The first goal was to establish a new balance of power in Europe, w hich would prevent imperialism within Europe, such as the Napoleonic Empire,  and maintain the peace between the great powers.The second goal was to prevent political revolutions, such as the French Revolution, and maintain the status quo. * Political ideologies: Conservatives Liberals socialist radicals Conservatism * a political and social philosophy that promotes retaining traditional social institutions Liberalism * a political ideology, a branch of liberalism which advocates civil liberties and political freedom with limited government under the rule of law and generally promotes a laissez-faire economic policy Socialism an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and co-operative management of the economy Radicalism * sought republicanism, abolition of titles, redistribution of property and freedom of the press * Demographic transition after industrialization * dramatic changes in population growth and life expectancy driven by changes in the underlying factors that explain them: fertility increased and mortality decreased * Karl Marx – father of socialism and communism Marx's ideas were that of pure equality.He wanted a world where everyone was equal. His theories, while impractical because of the nature of man, were truly â€Å"good†. His ultimate goal was to eradicate poverty. * Opium war – example of resistance to imperialism * Motives For Imperialism 1. ) Economic – motives included the desire to make money, to expand and control foreign trade, to create new markets for products, to acquire raw materials and cheap labor, to compete for investments and resources, and to export industrial technology and transportation methods. . ) Political- motives were based on a nation's desire to gain power, to compete with other European countries, to expand territory, to exercise military force, to gain prestige by winning colonies, and to boost national pride and security. 3. ) Religious- motives included the desire to spread Christianity, to protect European missionaries in other lands, to spread European values and moral beliefs, to educate peoples of other cultures, and to end slave trade in Africa. 4. Exploratory- motives were based on the desire to explore unknown or uncharted territory, to conduct scientific research, to conduct medical searches for the causes and treatment of diseases, to go on an adventure, and to investigate unknown lands and cultures. * Impact of imperialism/colonization * large numbers of people were forced into slavery or the system of indentured laborers, and vast areas of natural habitats were cleared and converted to monocultural plantations. * the export of Western values – resource exploitation, consumerism and materialism to the colonies

Epistemology †Sense Essay

The issue of knowledge is definitely an essential part in philosophy. It forces us to question whether we are certain of the things we think we know, and whether we can justify the things we know are actually true. This theory or study of knowledge can be referred to as epistemology. All these views on knowledge can vary depending on how we view the world itself. We are able to perceive the world through the application of our senses, however, our senses alone can be very deceiving. We can never really be definite of what we know just by looking at the world the way it is. We are able to make opinions and assumptions about what we see, smell, taste, and hear, but can never really be absolute. In order to claim knowledge, it requires certainty that something is true. If we were to claim knowledge without certainty, we would be disregarding Descartes’ conception of knowledge and certainty. Descartes clarifies doubt as the contrast to certainty. As certainty increases, doubt decreases; conversely, as doubt increases certainty decreases. The world would not be as challenging as it is if we could just accept anything as knowledge. We would be able to simply opinionate, assume, and estimate whatever we would like and claim that all is true. However, as good as it sounds, it is not practical. It is as what it sounds to be like a make believe world. Basically, if we based knowledge off of ideas we are not certain of and just accepted them as true, we would never be able to continue on to the next levels of knowledge. Somewhere along the lines of this uncertain knowledge, we would find that things do not correlate, or make sense. We would find ourselves questioning the reason for things and only finding out that our knowledge is inaccurate. All in all, fictitious knowledge is not beneficial in the long run without certainty.